« Russian Grammar (Русская Грамматика)

Velars and Hushers

• Velars: Velars are consonants produced with the back of the tongue against the soft part of the roof of the mouth (the velum). In Russian, the velar consonants are:
  • к (k)
  • г (g)
  • х (kh)
• Hushers: Hushers are consonants produced with a hushing or hissing sound. In Russian, the husher consonants are:
  • ж (zh)
  • ш (sh)
  • щ (shch)
  • ч (ch)

Spelling & Pronunciation Rules

• Spelling Rule 1:
  • After г, к, х, ж, ч, ш, and щ, use и instead of ы (e.g., мыши, not мышы).
• Spelling Rule 2:
  • After г, к, х, ж, ч, ш, щ, and ц, use у instead of ю.
  • After г, к, х, ж, ч, ш, щ, and ц, use а instead of я.
• Spelling Rule 3:
  • After ж, ч, ш, щ, and ц, write е instead of о when unstressed (e.g., в хорошем ресторане, not в хорошом ресторане).
• Spelling Rule 4:
  • If a word ends with ь, й, or я, drop it before adding a suffix and replace it with и.
• Pronunciation of Unstressed Vowels: The vowels о and е are often pronounced like а and И respectively when unstressed. However, they are still written as о and е.
• Soft and Hard Signs: In Russian, the soft sign (ь) and the hard sign (ъ) are unique letters that do not have their own sounds but significantly affect the pronunciation of the letters around them.
  • ь (soft sign / мягкий знак) is used to indicate the softness of the preceding consonant.
    • Example: мать (mother) indicates the softness of т.
  • Ъ (hard sign / твёрдый знак) is used to separate a prefix ending in a consonant from a root beginning with е, ё, ю, or я.
    • Example: подъезд (entrance) separates the prefix под- from the root езд.
• Capitalization: Like in English, you must capitalize titles, proper nouns, and the first word of the sentence. However, you should not capitalize я (I) unless it starts the sentence.
  • Example: Москва (Moscow)
  • Example: Война и Mир (War and Peace)
  • Example: Я хочу хлеб. (I want bread.)
• Heteronyms: When two words have the same spelling but different pronunciations and meanings, they are called heteronyms.
  • Example: замок (castle, ZA-mok) vs. замок (lock, za-MOK) - stress changes the meaning.

Prepositions and Cases

When it comes to using prepositions, Russian cases can be highly deceptive. For example, to say "I am playing the guitar," you would say "Я играю на гитаре." Although "гитара" is a musical instrument, you must use the prepositional case (гитаре) to indicate that you are playing "on the guitar."

• Genitive Case: Used with prepositions like без (without), для (for), от (from), or до (until).
  • Example: Книга для студента. (A book for the student.)
• Accusative Case: Used with prepositions like в (in, into), на (on, onto), or за (behind, beyond).
  • Example: Я иду в магазин. (I am going to the store.)
• Prepositional Case: Used with prepositions like о (about), в (in), or на (on).
  • Example: Я думаю о тебе. (I am thinking about you.)
• Instrumental Case: Used with prepositions like с (with), над (above), or под (under).
  • Example: Я пишу с ручкой. (I write with a pen.)
• Dative Case: Used with prepositions like к (to, towards) or по (along, according to).
  • Example: Я иду к врачу. (I am going to the doctor.)

Negative Sentences

In Russian, the genitive case is often used with negation, although the accusative case can sometimes be used as well. The choice between the two depends on the meaning and context.

• Complete Negation (Absence or Lack): The genitive case is used when you are expressing the complete absence or lack of something. This implies that something is not there at all.
• Example: У меня нет книги. (I do not have a book.)
• Example: У него нет времени. (He does not have time.)
• General Negation (When It's Indefinite or Uncertain): If you're talking about something that is general or indefinite in the negative sense, the genitive is used to indicate that the object of the verb is not specific.
• Example: Он не читал книг. (He didn't read books.)
• Accusative vs. Genitive in Negation: In certain cases, the accusative case is used instead of the genitive when negating, but this usually implies a less strong, less absolute negation—where the action is negated but the object still exists. The genitive case implies a stronger negation, like the complete absence or lack of something.
• Example with the accusative case (weaker negation): Я не вижу книгу. (I don't see the book—implies the book exists, but I just don't see it.)
• Example with the genitive case (stronger genation): Я не вижу книги. (I don't see the book—implies a stronger sense that the book is not there.)

Sentence Structure

Russian has a flexible sentence structure, but the most common order is Subject-Verb-Object (SVO). However, word order can change to emphasize different parts of the sentence.

• Example: Я люблю мороженое. (I love ice cream.) - Neutral.
• Example: Мороженое я люблю. (Literally: Ice cream, I love.) - Emphasis on ice cream.

Stress

Stress in Russian words can change the meaning and is generally not fixed. Although several stress patterns have been recognized, it is usually better to memorize the pronuncation of each word you learn to avoid confusion.

• Example: рука (hand) - Stress on the second syllable.
• Example: руки (hands) - Stress on the first syllable.

Verb Conjugation

• First Conjugation: Verbs ending in -ать or -ять.
  • Example: читать (to read) → я читаю (I read), ты читаешь (you read).
• Second Conjugation: Verbs ending in -ить.
  • Example: говорить (to speak) → я говорю (I speak), ты говоришь (you speak).

Pronouns

Russian uses personal, possessive, and reflexive pronouns. The Russian reflexive pronoun себя means oneself and is used when the subject and object of the verb are the same person or thing.

• Personal: я (I), ты (you), он (he), она (she), оно (it), мы (we), вы (you, plural/formal), они (they).
• Possessive: мой (my), твой (your), его (his), её (her), наш (our), ваш (your, plural/formal), их (their).
• Reflexive: себя (oneself).